Berkes, Colding, Folke (2000) emphasize what about traditional ecological knowledge?

• A. Indigenous knowledge has no role in adaptation.
• B. It argues for demolition of traditional practices.
• C. It claims only modern science is valid.
• D. Indigenous knowledge contributes to adaptive management; integration of knowledge systems; resilience and adaptation.

Answer: (D)

Traditional ecological knowledge is a deep, place-based understanding developed through generations of living with ecosystems. Berkes, Colding, and Folke show that this knowledge contributes to adaptive management by offering detailed observations of ecological patterns, resource use, and environmental change that can complement formal science. When TEK and scientific knowledge are integrated, management becomes more flexible and inclusive, enabling co-management and learning by doing as conditions shift. This integration strengthens resilience and adaptation by drawing on diverse perspectives, local values, and experiential learning, helping communities anticipate surprises, adjust practices, and sustain ecosystems. The emphasis is on combining knowledge systems to improve governance and outcomes, not on dismissing Indigenous knowledge or privileging one paradigm over another.