Nygren, Kröger, and Gills (2022) emphasize which type of models as alternatives to extractivism?

• A. Argues for expansion of extractivism.
• B. Focus on post-extractivist and community-led models as alternatives.
• C. Claims there are no viable alternatives.
• D. Analyzes only macroeconomic indicators.

Answer: (B)

Alternatives to extractivism are framed as post-extractivist and community-led models. Nygren, Kröger, and Gills argue that sustainable development should move away from relying on resource extraction toward approaches that center local communities, ecological health, and social equity. Post-extractivist models seek to rework economies so they are less dependent on mining or fossil-resource booms, emphasizing diversification, restoration of ecosystems, and governance that integrates rights, participation, and long-term resilience. Community-led models put decision-making in the hands of local actors—often including Indigenous groups and other residents—who steward resources, shape priorities, and pursue locally appropriate solutions rather than external, top-down projects. This perspective contrasts with simply expanding extraction, denying viable alternatives, or relying only on macroeconomic indicators that miss social and environmental dimensions.